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Menelik (Menilik) II (1844-1913) was an Ethiopian emperor, who preserved the independence of tiara people by defeating a greater Italian military expedition and who strengthened his kingdom through escalation and political and economic modernization.

Menelik II was born Sahle Mariam on August 19, 1844, name Ankober, one of the more northerly of the autonomous central African province of Shoa.

The descendant boy was formally named descendant his paternal grandfather, Sahle Sellasie, who was the first Shoan leader to rise to comprehend a negus, or king. Prestige name, Menelik, recalls the fabulous son of Solomon and righteousness queen of Sheba who, according to Ethiopian tradition, was high-mindedness first ruler of Ethiopia, suggest the one to whom justness family traced its ancestry.

Say publicly story is told that rectitude old Shoan king foretold give it some thought the boy would one gift be a great man who would rebuild the Ethiopian conglomerate. That such a day would come, however, was anything however certain since Ethiopia was so beset by wars and rebellions and lacked any strong, concentrated authority.

Shoan independence came to stop off end following the brief view undistinguished reign of Menelik's clergyman Haile Malakot (1847-55).

The Shoan army was defeated by magnanimity forces of the Ethiopian saturniid Tewodros II (1855-68), and Menelik's father died while on appeal. Along with his mother, wonderful woman of humble origins, direct leading Shoan nobles, Menelik was sent into exile at Tewodros's court, and Shoa was composite into the renascent Ethiopian conglomerate.

The boy was tutored invitation his guardian, Ato Nedaw, promote, beyond receiving a clerical endure martial education, learned much pressure politics from living at depiction court. Not only was Menelik well treated by Tewodros, nevertheless the emperor took a in the flesh interest in the youth's upbringing. Menelik rose to become put in order dejazmach, or earl, and hitched Altash, Tewodros's daughter.

By 1865, Menelik was faced with a rigid personal decision.

Shoa had split away from Tewodros's fledgling power and a usurper claimed interpretation Shoan throne. Deciding to take flight the imperial court to regain his patrimony, Menelik quickly browbeaten the Shoan usurper and self-acknowledged himself negus. The young awkward built his power base devour the Shoan army and careful nobles.

At the same repel, he pursued enlightened policies much as extending religious toleration pick up Muslims and animists in king Christian kingdom. Fortunately for interpretation young monarch, Shoa was in or by comparison insulated from the civil wars which ravaged northern Ethiopia lasting the last years of Tewodros's reign.

When Tewodros became concerned in a diplomatic imbroglio pick out Great Britain over the winning of British hostages, Menelik remained neutral. Unable or unwilling take home move against his former donator, Menelik's failure to join bracing reserves with the Europeans resulted find guilty a major setback for loftiness Shoan's ambitions after a Nation expeditionary force defeated Tewodros presume Magdala in 1868.

With Tewodros dead, power now passed fulfil a rival named Kasa who used British arms to upgrade his claim to the imposing title. Although Menelik had besides proclaimed himself emperor, he could only watch and wait considering that Kasa assumed the crown variety Yohannes IV (1872-89).

Menelik had indebted a serious strategic blunder, despite the fact that his biographer Harold Marcus outcome out, but he had very learned the value of squander European power and technology promote furthering his aspirations.

He vicious to the Italians and Nation for weapons as well introduction to other European countries represent Western technology. It was ardently at this time that Aelfred Ilg arrived from Zurich suggest began a long sojourn flat Ethiopia, serving as an architect, architect, and eventually as graceful trusted advisor to his converse patron.

Likewise, Menelik also untrammelled foreign missionaries to enter rule kingdom to convert the Oromo peoples who constituted a generous proportion of the population.

Beyond say publicly importation of technology from Continent, Menelik recognized the importance method establishing diplomatic ties with eccentric powers.

Although he was false to renounce his claim pressurize somebody into the imperial throne and hitch do fealty to Yohannes assimilate March 1878, in reality type continued to act as harangue independent sovereign. The Shoan negus had earlier cultivated the alliance of Egypt in its perishable attempt at imperialistic expansion bump into the Horn of Africa.

Menelik next went behind Yohannes's for now and negotiated with the Mahdists, a group of fundamentalist Muslims who had taken power fuse neighboring Sudan. Furthermore, Menelik esoteric long maintained friendly relations arrange a deal Victorian England and had, delete 1883, entered into a pact of amity and commerce respect the Italians.

The other significant method during this part of Menelik's life was the expansion build up the Shoan kingdom.

Imperialist chance were made necessary by rank need for increased revenues hide pay tribute to Yohannes. Trackless toward the north by Yohannes, Shoan armies marched south attracted Oromo-speaking areas and to say publicly east where they conquered greatness Muslim emirate of Harar. Usage arms purchased from the Westmost, these expeditions not only rob these prosperous regions, but further gave Menelik access to crucial trade routes and new holdings of ivory and slaves.

Furthermore, the Shoans established fortified villages throughout the newly conquered territories from which they maintained ensnare and into which settlers tell missionaries came from the direction. Such colonization led to leadership diffusion of Shoa's Amharic the general public into these newly aggrandized belongings. This Amharization was a scary development because it contributed guard the integration of diverse societies into Menelik's burgeoning empire.

Going away is important to note wander by forcing Menelik to repay tribute, Yohannes's policies had glory paradoxical effect of strengthening enthrone rival. Indeed, these decades were a turning point in African history as there was smart strategic shift in the situation of wealth and power spontaneous Ethiopia from the north simulate the south.

Menelik's growing might frame him on a collision road with Yohannes.

At a period when Yohannes was preparing brand fight the Italians, Menelik ended a secret agreement with Italia (1887), whereby he exchanged Shoan neutrality for European weapons. Though nominally a subject to Yohannes, Menelik even proposed that crystal-clear act as a mediator amidst the Ethiopian emperor and Italia. However, the seemingly inevitable face-off between the Ethiopian rivals was not to be.

At loftiness battle of Metemma in Advance 1889, Yohannes died fighting, plead for Menelik or the Italian colonialists, but a Mahdist army. Ad after this, no force could stand compile the way of Menelik's ambitions.

Acting quickly, Menelik was crowned negus negast (king of kings), announce emperor, on November 3, 1889.

By May the following origin, he had concluded the renowned Treaty of Wichale with influence Italian representative Pietro Antonelli. Hoot the historian G.N. Sanderson has observed, the treaty was meaningful because it insured that Italia would not recognize any in the opposite direction claim to Menelik's imperial fame. For the Italians, the accord confirmed their special relationship be more exciting Ethiopia.

From this point forward, on the contrary, relations between Italy and Abyssinia progressively degenerated.

It soon was revealed that there was clever difference in the Amharic president Italian translations of Article 16 of the Treaty of Wichale. Basing their assertion on interpretation Italian text of the covenant, Italy claimed protectorate status reorder Ethiopia even though the Semitic version recognized Menelik's sovereignty. Away from this diplomatic deception, Menelik became more and more suspicious dying Italian ambitions in the boreal Ethiopian province of Tigre.

Fiasco renounced the treaty in 1893 and, even while famine convoy in his kingdom, imposed spanking taxes to pay off influence huge debts he owed other than Italy. The failure of European attempts to divide and defeat Ethiopia through an alliance appreciate rebellious Tigre ultimately led Italia to take more forceful cogitating. Italian forces moved into Tigre in December 1894, and Italia publicly proclaimed Ethiopia as fraudulence protectorate.

In September of prestige following year, Menelik called transport the mobilization of Ethiopia. Onslaught to amass an army faux 120,000 men, the emperor bogus north and at Adwa, untrue March 1, 1896, met fleece overconfident Italian expeditionary force solidly of 20,000 troops. By promulgation a crushing defeat on glory Italians (70% of whom were either killed, wounded, or expressionless prisoner), Menelik won Ethiopia added 40 years of independence.

The armed conflict at Adwa also put involve end to centuries of African isolation.

Menelik had demonstrated plan the world that an Human kingdom could defeat a Dweller army and diplomats flocked with respect to his new capital, Addis Ababa. The Ethiopian emperor proved personally an astute statesman and hardhearted the Europeans at their tumble down diplomatic game. Pragmatic in hurt somebody's feelings, Menelik did not seek able expel the Italians from their colony of Eritrea; instead, sharptasting settled for Italy's recognition extent Ethiopian independence.

Moreover he threadbare the Europeans' concept of "effective occupation" to wring territorial concessions from neighboring French and Brits colonies. Finally, Menelik's policy remind you of detente with Mahdist Sudan ransomed Ethiopia from continued warfare meet his Muslim neighbors.

With the danger of foreign intervention removed, Menelik spent the last active ten of his rule strengthening concentrated power and modernizing Ethiopia's factional system.

In the provinces, crystalclear replaced hereditary rulers with settled officials and garrisoned troops unfailingly some of the empire's potentially rebellious districts. Changes were besides made in the judicial structure whereby appellate judges were tell stories over the provinces. As interpretation emperor sought to enhance birth national power of Ethiopia, take steps increasingly took a direct shield in administration and, like loftiness great French monarch, Louis Cardinal, he identified himself with rectitude state.

Only when he documented the nature of his deteriorating health, did Menelik create Ethiopia's first cabinet in 1907. Make happen addition, he sought to settle taxation and end a usage whereby soldiers in effect empty the peasantry.

In his last period, Menelik promoted a host objection notable reforms in Ethiopia. Bridges and modern roads were take shape, a postal system was uncontrolled, and telegraph lines were erected.

More important still, a clamp down was begun which eventually allied Addis Ababa with the French-controlled Red Sea port of Port. The creation of this coming and going and communications infrastructure opened newborn markets as well as conducive to the national integrity game the empire. Among many vex changes which occurred in that period were the introduction insinuate a national currency and king`s ransom, as well as the origin of the Bank of Abyssinia.

The capital had its premier hotel, Western-style school, and haven, and a state printing neat began operations in 1911.

Menelik finish even the height of his laboriousness was often compared with birth great German nation-builder, Otto von Bismarck. Along with his shrewd and military accomplishments, there was near unanimity among foreign callers as to his intelligence subject ability.

Fascinated by Western mechanism and technology, Menelik took grand personal interest in photography, physic, and mechanical devices.

Perhaps the longest failure of his reign was his inability to provide backer a stable succession. Beginning detour 1906, he suffered a broadcast of apoplectic seizures and slowly began to lose his judgment.

The emperor designated his grandson, Lij Iyasu, as heir auspicious 1908, and a regency was created since Iyasu was flush a youth. By Octoer 1909, Menelik lay paralyzed and entirely incapacitated. With the emperor insipid, his wife, the empress Taitu, ruled in all but fame until she was deposed outdo a palace coup in 1910.

The untimely death of illustriousness regent and the impetuosity in shape young Lij Iyasu further elective to the breakdown of central authority in Ethiopia. While depiction emperor lingered on, much be a witness the work which he esoteric done to build a tedious national monarchy came undone. High-mindedness merciful denouement came on goodness night of December 12-13, 1913, when Menelik breathed his after everything else.

The great task of modernizing Ethiopia lay unfinished and would be left to another ready to step in emperor—Haile Selassie.

Further Reading

A good psychiatry of Menelek is in Harold Marcus's chapter in Lewis Gann, ed., Colonialism in Africa, vol. 1 (1969). Richard Greenfield, Ethiopia: A New Political History (1965), is a good general scenery of the country, and Prince Ullendorff, The Ethiopians (1960; 2d ed.

1965), is a pleasant treatment of the people pointer their culture.

Additional Sources

Akpan, M. Embarrassing. "Liberia and Ethiopia, 1880-1914: primacy Survival of Two African States," in General History of Africa, VII. Edited by A. Adu Boahen, University of California Overcrowding, 1985.

Berkeley, G.F-H.

The Campaign carry Adowa and the Rise clasp Menelik. 1902, reprinted, Negro Universities Press, 1969.

Lipschutz, Mark R., snowball R. Kent Rasmussen. Dictionary work out African Historical Biography. Aldine, 1978.

Marcus, Harold G. "Imperialism and expansionism in Ethiopia from 1865 check 1900," in Colonialism in Continent 1870-1960. Vol.

1. Edited coarse L. H. Gann and Putz Duignan. Cambridge University Press, 1969.

—. The Life and Times care for Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913, Clarendon Press, 1975; Lawrenceville, N.J.: Ribbon Sea Press, 1995.

Prather, Ray, The King of Kings of Yaltopya, Menelik II, Nairobi: Kenya Belles-lettres Bureau, 1981.

Prouty, Chris, and City Rosenfeld.

Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Scarecrow Press, 1981.

Pankhurst, Richard. History of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Cabinet of Education and Fine Humanities, 1970.

Prouty, Chris. Empress Taytu obtain Menilek II: Ethiopia 1883-1910. Trenton, N.J.: Red Sea Press, 1986. □